1565-1569: Trouble on the Iberian Peninsula
The end of the 1560s was a rather special period for the Iberian kingdoms, particularly Spain, which found itself involved in various conflicts aimed at preserving its kingdom or the Catholic faith.
In the late 1560s, Philip II faced a series of challenges that complicated his reign, particularly on the domestic and religious fronts. The Spanish king pursued his policy of vigilance and compromise to consolidate his authority over the local assemblies and lords, and took advantage of the wealth of the New World, the Spanish Netherlands and trade to strengthen his kingdom. However, the constraints of a small population and inflation limited his room for manoeuvre. These difficulties were compounded by two major crises in which the religious question played a particular role: the troubles in the Spanish Netherlands and the troubles in the Alpujarras.
The mixed results of the 1564 expedition to Morocco crystallised fears in Spain of a Moroccan threat to the south of the kingdom and strengthened the determination of the Spanish crown to put an end to the religious practice of the Moriscos, fearing that they would support the Moroccans in the event of an invasion. In January 1565, this led the Archbishop of Granada to call for a synod to enforce the decisions of 1526 and to implement a repressive policy towards Moriscos who refused to submit to these decisions. Philip II agreed to the synod, which led to the introduction of the Pragmatica at the beginning of 1566, prohibiting all Morisco practices. The Moriscos tried to negotiate and find a compromise, but Philip II was firm and intransigent, determined to strengthen the Catholic faith in his kingdom and prevent the Moriscos from having a potential ally in his kingdom. The Crown's refusal to amend the Pragmatic Sanction of February 1566 led the Moriscos to prepare a revolt, even though they continued negotiations to obtain concessions on the Synod's decision. During the years 1566-1567, the Spanish authorities arrested a number of Moriscos on suspicion of sedition or seeking to support the Moroccans in a potential invasion project. Despite the numerous arrests, this did not deter the other members of the community from amassing weapons and supplies in caves, determined to defend their culture and faith and fearing exile or the Spanish Inquisition. The main leaders met in the Albaicín (1) to prepare their project. There was disagreement over whether to ask the Kingdom of Morocco for help: some of the chiefs were in favour, while others were reluctant, believing that it was first and foremost a matter of defending their culture and their rights. However, they all agreed in October 1567 to appoint a leader to lead the revolt.
The revolt broke out on Christmas Eve 1567 in the village of Béznar with the enthronement of Hernando de Córdoba y Valór as king. The rebels sought the support of the Moriscos of Granada, but achieved only mixed results. In early 1568, the revolt took a fanatical turn, with the torture and massacre of priests and monks, and the burning and desecration of churches. In response to the revolt in the Alpujarras, the Spanish launched a campaign in the region with two armed forces, one led by the Marquis of Mondéjar to the west of the Alpujarras and the other by the Marquis of Los Veléz to the east. The campaign was carried out in early 1568 and saw atrocities committed by both sides. Although the two commanders led an effective campaign that pushed the revolt to its very limits, their rivalry and the violence of the Spanish atrocities against the Moriscos helped to strengthen the revolt with the support of the lowland towns. From the summer of 1568, this local support was joined by that of the Kingdom of Morocco, as Abdallah el-Ghalib sought to take advantage of the revolt to try and weaken his Christian rival. Moroccan support came in the form of reinforcements and, above all, raids against the Spanish coast and Spanish enclaves, particularly Oran. The rebels waged a war of skirmishes, taking advantage of the complex terrain of the Sierras and avoiding confrontations on open ground.
Faced with the strengthening of the rebels and the support of the Moroccans, the Spanish deployed their fleet to defend their coasts and dissuade any ships from Morocco from approaching the Andalusian shores. Philip II also replaced the Marquis of Mondéjar with Luís de Zúñiga y Requesens in the late spring of 1568. During 1568, the region was marked by atrocities on both sides, with the Spanish trying to contain the rebel attacks and Granada finding itself somewhat isolated for a time due to the raids by the rebels and their Moroccan allies. With the support of the Marquis of Los Veléz and Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Duke of Sessa, Luís de Zúñiga y Requesens launched a new military campaign at the beginning of 1569 in the Pitres-Poqueira region, besieging Galera in a violent siege. During his campaign, his forces dwindled due to desertions and his progress was hampered by the resistance of the Moriscos, but by the end of the spring of 1569 he had managed to win the Serón region and move closer to the Alpujarras. In April 1569, the Spanish attacked the Alpujarras in force, Luís de Zúñiga y Requesens to the west, Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba to the north and the Marquis of Veléz to the east. The Spaniards destroyed every last one they encountered, killing all those who resisted and taking the survivors prisoner. However, their advance was slowed by the violent resistance of the Moriscos and their Moroccan allies, who used all the features of the sierras to delay their adversaries. Despite the difficulties, losses and desertions, the Spanish managed to penetrate to the heart of the Alpujarras, forcing some of the rebels to surrender in the autumn of 1569. However, some of them continued to resist at the end of the year, led by Aben Abou.
On the dynastic front, Philip II saw the birth of his daughter Marie-Jeanne in the autumn of 1567. His relations with his heir, Prince Charles, deteriorated further during this period, not least because of the increasing attention Philip II paid to his half-brother Diego. The deterioration in relations between the king and his heir led the latter to seek allies, particularly among the local nobility. He also drew closer to the representatives of the Spanish Netherlands, who were increasingly annoyed by the policies being pursued in their territory. Finally, the Prince exchanged views with John IV of Navarre, promising the latter to return Upper Navarre to him in exchange for his support in defending his position as heir should he lose his position to his half-brothers. In so doing, the Prince drew closer to Charles IX of France. These various dealings were reported to his father in 1567, who sought to have him arrested. The Prince narrowly escaped arrest and took refuge with John IV of Navarre in the summer of 1567. Philip II denounced his son as a traitor and in autumn 1567 appointed his son Diego as his new heir. Charles of Austria stayed at the Château de Foix and in the autumn of 1567 met representatives of Charles IX, who was keen to gain the support of the King of France in his claims and to revive his exchanges with the Malcontent party. Although the initial exchanges were unsuccessful, Charles was allowed to return to the Château d'Amboise in the winter of 1567-1568, while John IV of Navarre was under pressure from Philip II. This change of location enabled the deposed prince to meet Charles IX. The meeting was complicated by the prince's character and Charles IX's scruples, but an agreement was reached with the prospect of meeting representatives of the Malcontents of the Sixteen Provinces. At the beginning of 1568, Charles met representatives of the House of Orange and the Count of Egmont near Saint-Dizier, where negotiations were held between the Malcontents and the French crown. The Treaty of Saint-Dizier was concluded in February 1568, enabling Charles of Austria to become the leader of the Malcontents and to have the support of the French crown. He took part in the 1568 campaign, forcing his father Philip II to increase the presence of military forces in the Spanish Netherlands to neutralise his rebellious son.
On the diplomatic front, Philip II had very complicated relations with John IV of Navarre and Charles IX of France due to territorial disputes. Philip II did not know how to resolve the problem of Upper Navarre with John IV, who had drawn closer to Charles IX of France. Relations deteriorated further when Prince Charles took refuge with the King of Navarre. Relations with the King of France were strained, particularly because of his support for the Republic of Genoa after the events of summer 1566 and the French crown's support for his eldest son from 1568. The King of Spain's relations with the Republic of Genoa were complex and changeable due to the circumstances and the instability that returned to the city: links with the maritime city were very strong with the governance of the Doria family, but the overthrow of the latter and the assassination of its ambassador contributed to making exchanges between Philip II and the new leaders of the republic hostile, the sovereign being ready to support the claims of Giovanni Andrea Doria when the latter offered his services and his wish to regain control of Genoa. The execution of his ambassador's murderers in early 1567 eased tensions between the Spanish crown and the maritime republic, but the arrival of Cesare Fregoso as doge in late spring 1567 helped to rekindle tensions, particularly as a result of the rehabilitation of the Spanish ambassador's murderers and the Genoese republic's rapprochement with the French crown. However, the unrest in the Spanish Netherlands and in the territory of Granada diverted Philip II's attention from the Maritime Republic. He did, however, put Giovanni Doria in charge of the Spanish fleet responsible for guarding the coasts to prevent the Moroccans from attempting initiatives that would threaten his kingdom. Philip II maintained important but complex relations with the papacy, particularly as a result of the conciliatory policies pursued by Benedict XIII from 1569 onwards. He developed relations with the Duchy of Florence and the Kingdom of England during this period. Lastly, he had important relations with his cousin Maximilian II, although they disagreed on the confessional question. He consolidated his relations with the Kingdom of Portugal, particularly in the context of the latent conflict with the Kingdom of Morocco. The Spanish sovereign was in latent conflict with Abdallah el-Ghalib, who was determined to prevent the expansion of the Cherifian kingdom and its involvement in the Morisco rebellion.
At the end of the 1560s, tensions in the Spanish Netherlands increased as a result of a number of factors. Poor harvests in 1565 put the Sixteen Provinces in a complicated position when it came to meeting its needs, even if trade with its neighbours partly offset the losses. These tensions were exacerbated by the religious quarrels that divided the territory: the rhetoric of Calvinist preachers was countered by the actions of the Spanish authorities and the Spanish Inquisition, which was beginning to establish itself in the Sixteen Provinces. The reinforcement of the policies pursued by Ferdinand d'Alvare de Tolède crystallised tensions within the Dutch and Flemish nobility: René de Chalon and Charles de Berlaymont were among those who supported the crown, while Lamoral d'Egmont and others denounced the policies pursued in the name of Philip II and defended the rights and freedoms of the Sixteen Provinces. In so doing, they drew closer to Prince Charles, who claimed to defend their interests and wanted their support to be able to defend his position as heir to the crown.
Ferdinand d'Alvare de Toledo endeavoured to resolve the difficulties affecting the Sixteen Provinces while pursuing his policies, particularly in the fight against the spread of Calvinist ideas. However, the governor sought to maintain good relations with the local nobility and made compromises whenever possible to appease those who were opposed or hostile to his policies, whom some of his aides began to nickname the Malcontents.
While the divisions between the opponents of the Governor of the Netherlands and the strict religious discipline hampered the development of any movement during the years 1565-1566, the growing tensions and news from Spain helped to blur the differences and obstacles. In the spring of 1566, a group of nobles organised around Philippe de Marnix, Henri de Brederode and William and Louis de Nassau, presented a petition to Ferdinand d'Alvare of Toledo asking him to moderate the religious policy and activities of the Inquisition. The governor was reluctant to accede to their requests, but agreed to think about it. The governor and his advisors considered the matter but decided to refer to Philip II before making a decision. The governor's response aroused discontent among the Malcontents, although the more moderate and those close to the governor sought to appease their anger. The governor's apparent refusal to accept the so-called "Compromise of the Nobles" served to reinforce the anger of certain sections of the population, stirred up by Calvinist preachers. This led to iconoclastic incidents in June 1566, particularly in Brabant and Zeeland. The Duke of Alba undertook to set up garrisons in the cities affected to restore order, even asking Philip II to send reinforcements to enable him to re-establish order. He also decided not to accept the compromise proposed by the nobility, despite the insistence of the petitioners. While most of the nobility denounced the acts of iconoclasm, the petitioners and the Malcontents movement were disappointed and furious at the governor's final refusal and the strengthening of religious policies in the Sixteen Provinces. The nobles close to the governor tried to calm the situation, but their efforts were in vain as repression intensified against the Calvinists, particularly during the uprising in Valenciennes in the autumn of 1566. Ferdinand d'Alvare de Toledo sent a force to regain control of the city, despite the demands of Philippe de Noircarmes, the stadhouder of Hainaut, who first wanted to obtain the reopening of the city through negotiation. A siege began in October 1566, in which the stadhouder of Hainaut was forced to take part if he did not want to find himself at odds with the Duke of Alba. During the autumn and winter of 1566-1567, the Spanish carried out an intense siege and defeated a relief force that was trying to clear the siege. The defeated prisoners were executed as rebels. At the beginning of December 1566, the Spanish bombarded the city, forcing it to surrender before inflicting heavy punishment, including the execution of Guy de Brès and Pérégrin de la Grange, two prominent Calvinists living in the city.
The campaign against Valenciennes and its repression caused great concern among the local nobility, helping to strengthen and radicalise the Malcontents movement. Among the latter, Lamoral d'Egmont and the Nassau d'Orange preferred to leave the Sixteen Provinces for fear of being arrested for their Calvinist sympathies. Philippe de Montmorency-Nivelle, on the other hand, was arrested in February 1567 when the titles and property of the nobles who had fled were taken away from them. The exiled nobles sought to build up their forces and agree on common objectives. Lamoral d'Egmont was appointed leader of the movement because of his military and political experience. The loss of their titles and their weak or non-existent links outside the Spanish Netherlands meant that they were hard pressed to find allies and forces to recruit. However, the Malcontents were welcomed by William V of Cleves, who was a neighbour in the Spanish Netherlands, even though the Duke preferred to remain neutral in his potential support for the exiled lords. Through the Duke and his wife Marguerite, the Count of Egmont and his allies began to make contact with the French crown in the spring of 1567, despite their reservations and reticence. They sought to make contact with other princes of empires and even the King of Denmark, Frederick II. Despite reservations, they finally made contact with René de Chalon's cousin, William of Nassau-Dillenbourg, who and his brothers were convinced Lutherans and princes of empire. William did not immediately commit himself to supporting the Malcontents, but his brothers Louis and Adolphe joined Lamoral d'Egmont in offering their services.
During 1567, order and peace seemed to reign in the Sixteen Provinces. But anger at the Duke of Alba's brutal policies strengthened the Malcontents' camp, especially as arrests of nobles deemed too close to the Calvinists multiplied during the period. The weakness of the Malcontents seemed to ensure that the governor had no real threat. However, his policies and the arrest of the Earl of Hornes also helped to reinforce divisions and antagonisms among the nobles who remained loyal to the crown. There was a particularly heated dispute between the Governor and the Prince of Orange, René de Chalon, with Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo beginning to distrust the latter, while René disapproved of the way the Governor was managing the Sixteen Provinces, less and less as a territory in its own right and more as a Spanish province. These disagreements erupted with the Quarrel of Ghent in May 1567, when the governor accused René de Chalon of being in contact with Prince Charles and of seeking sedition. This conflict led to a rift between the two men, culminating in René de Chalon's departure to his lands in Orange. René initially refused, as his disagreements with the Duke of Alba had not marred his loyalty to the Habsburgs, despite his criticism of the policy developed for the Sixteen Provinces. The situation changed in autumn 1567 when he heard of Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo's intention to send his son to Spain. For the Prince of Orange, the intention was clear: his son would be used as a hostage to dissuade him from joining the Malcontents. In November 1567, René made contact with Lamoral d'Egmont and eventually joined the Malcontent party in the winter of 1567-1568. His rallying strengthened the Malcontent party and enabled the exiled nobles to make contact with Nicolas II of Lorraine and to strengthen exchanges with the French crown, especially as Charles of Austria joined the kingdom of France during this period. These exchanges culminated in the meeting and Treaty of Saint-Dizier in March 1568, when the French crown pledged its support to the Malcontents and allowed Charles of Austria to join the movement.
These events strengthened the Malcontent party and enabled them to recruit various armed forces, but differences divided the main leaders, particularly on religious issues and military strategy or objectives, with the Malcontent nobles seeking first and foremost to defend the interests of the Sixteen Provinces when Charles of Austria now wished to resume his position as heir and denounce his father. The disagreements were all the stronger because the difficult character of the exiled prince made compromise difficult. In the spring of 1568, however, many of the differences were ironed out and a strategy was put in place with two armies, one led by Charles of Austria and René de Chalon to the south, while the Count of Egmont led another to the north. The Malcontents and the deposed prince also established links with Duke William V of Cleves and Duke Nicholas II of Lorraine, although the latter remained neutral in the quarrels between the Malcontents and the Duke of Alba.
In May 1568, Charles of Austria and René de Chalon crossed the Meuse after obtaining the support of Maastricht. Accompanied by an army of twelve thousand men, they advanced on Brussels with the intention of taking it and forcing the Duke of Alba to give in to their demands. In mid-May 1568, Lamoral d'Egmont and Joost de Soete entered Holland with an army of seven thousand men. The Count succeeded in rallying certain territories and defeated a loyalist army near Geten (2). He sought the support of Groningen, but its representatives refused, forcing him to lay siege to the city.
Faced with the Malcontent attack, Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo raised an army and went to meet the forces of René de Chalon and Charles of Austria. The approach of the Duke of Alba's army led the Prince of Orange to want to avoid him, but Charles of Austria was determined to confront the Duke in the hope of winning him over and, if not, consolidating his position with a prestigious victory. The two armies met east of Tienen at the end of May 1568. The meeting between the deposed prince and the governor failed and led to a confrontation between the two armies. Despite the military skills and advice of the Prince of Orange, Charles of Austria and his forces were crushed by the army of Ferdinand d'Alvare de Toledo and forced to flee, half of his army destroyed in the confrontation. After this success, Ferdinand Alvare de Toledo pursued the remnants of the deposed prince's forces as far as Maastricht, but had to give up his attempt to take the city as the threat from the Count of Egmont's forces grew stronger with the capture of Groningen at the beginning of June 1568 and threatened Zwolle and Utrecht. Moving north, the Duke sought to intercept the second opposing army. Lamoral d'Egmont retreated to Emmen, which he occupied in June 1568. His army narrowly escaped Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo as it crossed the Ems north of Haren towards the end of June 1568. Despite his failure to neutralise the Count of Egmont's army, the Duke of Alba set about regaining control of the region during July 1568. Returning to Brussels at the beginning of August 1568, he had the Count of Hornes executed and further strengthened repression and military governance of the Sixteen Provinces. Shortly afterwards, he laid siege to Maastricht in September 1568, the city having been reinforced by forces sent by Lamoral d'Egmont to defend the city and secure the loyalist army.
In the autumn of 1568, the rest of Count d'Egmont's forces led a new campaign with the help of René de Chalon and Charles of Austria. Crossing the Meuse near Ruremonde in early October 1568, the Malcontents advanced on Antwerp with the intention of making it a strategic location for their forces and gaining access to the North Sea. As they reached Meerhout shortly before mid-October, the deposed prince and his allies learned of the fall of Maastricht and the Duke of Alba's advance to intercept their forces. Seeking to avoid a confrontation with the governor, the forces of the Malcontents moved up towards the territories of Gelderland. They crossed the Ems at Venlo, but were attacked by the Duke of Alba there at the end of October 1568. Clashes raged for several hours, during which the Malcontent forces contained the Spanish assaults to allow part of the army to withdraw. The Duke of Alba finally broke through the opposing defences and forced his opponents into a rout, which he exploited with his cavalry. The rearguard of the forces of Charles of Austria and his allies were massacred by the Spaniards, while the rest of the army had difficulty escaping the pursuit of the horsemen of Ferdinand Alvaro of Toledo.
The success of Venlo enabled the Duke of Alba to consolidate his authority over the Spanish Netherlands and neutralise the threat of the Malcontents, even though he stepped up the surveillance of the borders of the Sixteen Provinces and increased the repression of Calvinists and those close to the Malcontents, forcing certain sections of the population to flee to the lands of the Empire. For their part, Charles of Austria and his allies reorganised themselves in the Principality of Orange, but major divisions emerged between the main leaders, particularly over objectives, with some thinking of breaking away from the Spanish crown. Although the support of the French crown enabled the Malcontents to reorganise their forces, they were nevertheless fairly isolated, as the princes of empire were uncertain or wary of supporting them when they had the former heir to the Spanish crown in their ranks. The announcement of the death of Charles IX of France in the autumn of 1569 worried the Malcontents, who feared that the new sovereign would give up supporting them, leading Charles of Austria to seek a meeting with Charles X to negotiate with him.
During the late 1560s, the Kingdom of Portugal continued to benefit from the regency of Cardinal Henry of Evora on behalf of his grand-nephew, Alexander I. The latter continued his political and military training while being imbued with a deep religious feeling. The regency ended in 1568 when the young sovereign came of age. His character was religious, austere and chaste, but at the same time violent, fiery and even despotic. Alexander I was passionate about all bodily exercises and, at the beginning of his reign, left bits of power to his grandmother Catherine of Castile. The young sovereign surrounded himself with courtiers who encouraged his bellicose character, leading him to plan a campaign against Morocco to spread the Christian faith and put an end to the threat posed by the Saadian dynasty. For his plans, he demanded funds from the Church and began to levy additional taxes on the population. Within the court, rivalries and struggles for influence developed between his grandmother and her opponents, who were determined to play a central role with the young king.
The Kingdom of Portugal continued to develop its influence and relations in the Indian Ocean and Asia, in particular strengthening its influence on the Indian coast and in South-East Asia. They developed their relations with local kingdoms from Ethiopia to Japan. They continued to develop their colony in Brazil, in particular to avoid French interference. Relations with the Kingdom of Morocco and the Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, remained more tense and conflictual. The Portuguese sought to protect their enclaves from the Moroccans, particularly from 1568 with the start of the personal reign of Alexander I, although attacks on the remaining enclaves were reduced by the latent conflict between Morocco and Spain. On the other hand, clashes and conflicts with the Ottomans intensified during this period in the Red Sea, with the Ottoman fleet carrying out another major raid against the Portuguese possessions in Yemen in 1567, where they managed to take Aden, although the fort of Kamaran remained in Portuguese hands, the latter taking advantage of this to carry out piratical actions against the Ottomans in the region and hinder their expansion.
On the diplomatic front, although the Kingdom of Portugal's initial relations with the Kingdom of Spain remained cordial, a certain disagreement began to emerge between Alexander I and Philip II due to their divergent interests in Morocco. While Philip II was prepared to ally himself with the King of Portugal to counter the Saadian dynasty, Alexander I took a dim view of what he perceived as the Spanish sovereign's interference in what he increasingly saw as his own backyard, even though the idea of allying himself with his neighbour and relative as part of what he saw as a new crusade was a strong one. The young sovereign set about forging other links, in particular with the kingdom of England, and strengthened his relations with the papacy, even though Benedict XIII's conciliatory policy was viewed with some incomprehension at the Portuguese court. Relations with the French crown were fairly neutral, but the growing number of expeditions to the coasts of Africa and the Indian Ocean contributed to the emergence of strong tensions between the two kingdoms.
(1) Morisco district of Granada.
(2) Former name of Gieten.
The end of the 1560s was a rather special period for the Iberian kingdoms, particularly Spain, which found itself involved in various conflicts aimed at preserving its kingdom or the Catholic faith.
In the late 1560s, Philip II faced a series of challenges that complicated his reign, particularly on the domestic and religious fronts. The Spanish king pursued his policy of vigilance and compromise to consolidate his authority over the local assemblies and lords, and took advantage of the wealth of the New World, the Spanish Netherlands and trade to strengthen his kingdom. However, the constraints of a small population and inflation limited his room for manoeuvre. These difficulties were compounded by two major crises in which the religious question played a particular role: the troubles in the Spanish Netherlands and the troubles in the Alpujarras.
The mixed results of the 1564 expedition to Morocco crystallised fears in Spain of a Moroccan threat to the south of the kingdom and strengthened the determination of the Spanish crown to put an end to the religious practice of the Moriscos, fearing that they would support the Moroccans in the event of an invasion. In January 1565, this led the Archbishop of Granada to call for a synod to enforce the decisions of 1526 and to implement a repressive policy towards Moriscos who refused to submit to these decisions. Philip II agreed to the synod, which led to the introduction of the Pragmatica at the beginning of 1566, prohibiting all Morisco practices. The Moriscos tried to negotiate and find a compromise, but Philip II was firm and intransigent, determined to strengthen the Catholic faith in his kingdom and prevent the Moriscos from having a potential ally in his kingdom. The Crown's refusal to amend the Pragmatic Sanction of February 1566 led the Moriscos to prepare a revolt, even though they continued negotiations to obtain concessions on the Synod's decision. During the years 1566-1567, the Spanish authorities arrested a number of Moriscos on suspicion of sedition or seeking to support the Moroccans in a potential invasion project. Despite the numerous arrests, this did not deter the other members of the community from amassing weapons and supplies in caves, determined to defend their culture and faith and fearing exile or the Spanish Inquisition. The main leaders met in the Albaicín (1) to prepare their project. There was disagreement over whether to ask the Kingdom of Morocco for help: some of the chiefs were in favour, while others were reluctant, believing that it was first and foremost a matter of defending their culture and their rights. However, they all agreed in October 1567 to appoint a leader to lead the revolt.
The revolt broke out on Christmas Eve 1567 in the village of Béznar with the enthronement of Hernando de Córdoba y Valór as king. The rebels sought the support of the Moriscos of Granada, but achieved only mixed results. In early 1568, the revolt took a fanatical turn, with the torture and massacre of priests and monks, and the burning and desecration of churches. In response to the revolt in the Alpujarras, the Spanish launched a campaign in the region with two armed forces, one led by the Marquis of Mondéjar to the west of the Alpujarras and the other by the Marquis of Los Veléz to the east. The campaign was carried out in early 1568 and saw atrocities committed by both sides. Although the two commanders led an effective campaign that pushed the revolt to its very limits, their rivalry and the violence of the Spanish atrocities against the Moriscos helped to strengthen the revolt with the support of the lowland towns. From the summer of 1568, this local support was joined by that of the Kingdom of Morocco, as Abdallah el-Ghalib sought to take advantage of the revolt to try and weaken his Christian rival. Moroccan support came in the form of reinforcements and, above all, raids against the Spanish coast and Spanish enclaves, particularly Oran. The rebels waged a war of skirmishes, taking advantage of the complex terrain of the Sierras and avoiding confrontations on open ground.
Faced with the strengthening of the rebels and the support of the Moroccans, the Spanish deployed their fleet to defend their coasts and dissuade any ships from Morocco from approaching the Andalusian shores. Philip II also replaced the Marquis of Mondéjar with Luís de Zúñiga y Requesens in the late spring of 1568. During 1568, the region was marked by atrocities on both sides, with the Spanish trying to contain the rebel attacks and Granada finding itself somewhat isolated for a time due to the raids by the rebels and their Moroccan allies. With the support of the Marquis of Los Veléz and Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Duke of Sessa, Luís de Zúñiga y Requesens launched a new military campaign at the beginning of 1569 in the Pitres-Poqueira region, besieging Galera in a violent siege. During his campaign, his forces dwindled due to desertions and his progress was hampered by the resistance of the Moriscos, but by the end of the spring of 1569 he had managed to win the Serón region and move closer to the Alpujarras. In April 1569, the Spanish attacked the Alpujarras in force, Luís de Zúñiga y Requesens to the west, Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba to the north and the Marquis of Veléz to the east. The Spaniards destroyed every last one they encountered, killing all those who resisted and taking the survivors prisoner. However, their advance was slowed by the violent resistance of the Moriscos and their Moroccan allies, who used all the features of the sierras to delay their adversaries. Despite the difficulties, losses and desertions, the Spanish managed to penetrate to the heart of the Alpujarras, forcing some of the rebels to surrender in the autumn of 1569. However, some of them continued to resist at the end of the year, led by Aben Abou.
On the dynastic front, Philip II saw the birth of his daughter Marie-Jeanne in the autumn of 1567. His relations with his heir, Prince Charles, deteriorated further during this period, not least because of the increasing attention Philip II paid to his half-brother Diego. The deterioration in relations between the king and his heir led the latter to seek allies, particularly among the local nobility. He also drew closer to the representatives of the Spanish Netherlands, who were increasingly annoyed by the policies being pursued in their territory. Finally, the Prince exchanged views with John IV of Navarre, promising the latter to return Upper Navarre to him in exchange for his support in defending his position as heir should he lose his position to his half-brothers. In so doing, the Prince drew closer to Charles IX of France. These various dealings were reported to his father in 1567, who sought to have him arrested. The Prince narrowly escaped arrest and took refuge with John IV of Navarre in the summer of 1567. Philip II denounced his son as a traitor and in autumn 1567 appointed his son Diego as his new heir. Charles of Austria stayed at the Château de Foix and in the autumn of 1567 met representatives of Charles IX, who was keen to gain the support of the King of France in his claims and to revive his exchanges with the Malcontent party. Although the initial exchanges were unsuccessful, Charles was allowed to return to the Château d'Amboise in the winter of 1567-1568, while John IV of Navarre was under pressure from Philip II. This change of location enabled the deposed prince to meet Charles IX. The meeting was complicated by the prince's character and Charles IX's scruples, but an agreement was reached with the prospect of meeting representatives of the Malcontents of the Sixteen Provinces. At the beginning of 1568, Charles met representatives of the House of Orange and the Count of Egmont near Saint-Dizier, where negotiations were held between the Malcontents and the French crown. The Treaty of Saint-Dizier was concluded in February 1568, enabling Charles of Austria to become the leader of the Malcontents and to have the support of the French crown. He took part in the 1568 campaign, forcing his father Philip II to increase the presence of military forces in the Spanish Netherlands to neutralise his rebellious son.
On the diplomatic front, Philip II had very complicated relations with John IV of Navarre and Charles IX of France due to territorial disputes. Philip II did not know how to resolve the problem of Upper Navarre with John IV, who had drawn closer to Charles IX of France. Relations deteriorated further when Prince Charles took refuge with the King of Navarre. Relations with the King of France were strained, particularly because of his support for the Republic of Genoa after the events of summer 1566 and the French crown's support for his eldest son from 1568. The King of Spain's relations with the Republic of Genoa were complex and changeable due to the circumstances and the instability that returned to the city: links with the maritime city were very strong with the governance of the Doria family, but the overthrow of the latter and the assassination of its ambassador contributed to making exchanges between Philip II and the new leaders of the republic hostile, the sovereign being ready to support the claims of Giovanni Andrea Doria when the latter offered his services and his wish to regain control of Genoa. The execution of his ambassador's murderers in early 1567 eased tensions between the Spanish crown and the maritime republic, but the arrival of Cesare Fregoso as doge in late spring 1567 helped to rekindle tensions, particularly as a result of the rehabilitation of the Spanish ambassador's murderers and the Genoese republic's rapprochement with the French crown. However, the unrest in the Spanish Netherlands and in the territory of Granada diverted Philip II's attention from the Maritime Republic. He did, however, put Giovanni Doria in charge of the Spanish fleet responsible for guarding the coasts to prevent the Moroccans from attempting initiatives that would threaten his kingdom. Philip II maintained important but complex relations with the papacy, particularly as a result of the conciliatory policies pursued by Benedict XIII from 1569 onwards. He developed relations with the Duchy of Florence and the Kingdom of England during this period. Lastly, he had important relations with his cousin Maximilian II, although they disagreed on the confessional question. He consolidated his relations with the Kingdom of Portugal, particularly in the context of the latent conflict with the Kingdom of Morocco. The Spanish sovereign was in latent conflict with Abdallah el-Ghalib, who was determined to prevent the expansion of the Cherifian kingdom and its involvement in the Morisco rebellion.
At the end of the 1560s, tensions in the Spanish Netherlands increased as a result of a number of factors. Poor harvests in 1565 put the Sixteen Provinces in a complicated position when it came to meeting its needs, even if trade with its neighbours partly offset the losses. These tensions were exacerbated by the religious quarrels that divided the territory: the rhetoric of Calvinist preachers was countered by the actions of the Spanish authorities and the Spanish Inquisition, which was beginning to establish itself in the Sixteen Provinces. The reinforcement of the policies pursued by Ferdinand d'Alvare de Tolède crystallised tensions within the Dutch and Flemish nobility: René de Chalon and Charles de Berlaymont were among those who supported the crown, while Lamoral d'Egmont and others denounced the policies pursued in the name of Philip II and defended the rights and freedoms of the Sixteen Provinces. In so doing, they drew closer to Prince Charles, who claimed to defend their interests and wanted their support to be able to defend his position as heir to the crown.
Ferdinand d'Alvare de Toledo endeavoured to resolve the difficulties affecting the Sixteen Provinces while pursuing his policies, particularly in the fight against the spread of Calvinist ideas. However, the governor sought to maintain good relations with the local nobility and made compromises whenever possible to appease those who were opposed or hostile to his policies, whom some of his aides began to nickname the Malcontents.
While the divisions between the opponents of the Governor of the Netherlands and the strict religious discipline hampered the development of any movement during the years 1565-1566, the growing tensions and news from Spain helped to blur the differences and obstacles. In the spring of 1566, a group of nobles organised around Philippe de Marnix, Henri de Brederode and William and Louis de Nassau, presented a petition to Ferdinand d'Alvare of Toledo asking him to moderate the religious policy and activities of the Inquisition. The governor was reluctant to accede to their requests, but agreed to think about it. The governor and his advisors considered the matter but decided to refer to Philip II before making a decision. The governor's response aroused discontent among the Malcontents, although the more moderate and those close to the governor sought to appease their anger. The governor's apparent refusal to accept the so-called "Compromise of the Nobles" served to reinforce the anger of certain sections of the population, stirred up by Calvinist preachers. This led to iconoclastic incidents in June 1566, particularly in Brabant and Zeeland. The Duke of Alba undertook to set up garrisons in the cities affected to restore order, even asking Philip II to send reinforcements to enable him to re-establish order. He also decided not to accept the compromise proposed by the nobility, despite the insistence of the petitioners. While most of the nobility denounced the acts of iconoclasm, the petitioners and the Malcontents movement were disappointed and furious at the governor's final refusal and the strengthening of religious policies in the Sixteen Provinces. The nobles close to the governor tried to calm the situation, but their efforts were in vain as repression intensified against the Calvinists, particularly during the uprising in Valenciennes in the autumn of 1566. Ferdinand d'Alvare de Toledo sent a force to regain control of the city, despite the demands of Philippe de Noircarmes, the stadhouder of Hainaut, who first wanted to obtain the reopening of the city through negotiation. A siege began in October 1566, in which the stadhouder of Hainaut was forced to take part if he did not want to find himself at odds with the Duke of Alba. During the autumn and winter of 1566-1567, the Spanish carried out an intense siege and defeated a relief force that was trying to clear the siege. The defeated prisoners were executed as rebels. At the beginning of December 1566, the Spanish bombarded the city, forcing it to surrender before inflicting heavy punishment, including the execution of Guy de Brès and Pérégrin de la Grange, two prominent Calvinists living in the city.
The campaign against Valenciennes and its repression caused great concern among the local nobility, helping to strengthen and radicalise the Malcontents movement. Among the latter, Lamoral d'Egmont and the Nassau d'Orange preferred to leave the Sixteen Provinces for fear of being arrested for their Calvinist sympathies. Philippe de Montmorency-Nivelle, on the other hand, was arrested in February 1567 when the titles and property of the nobles who had fled were taken away from them. The exiled nobles sought to build up their forces and agree on common objectives. Lamoral d'Egmont was appointed leader of the movement because of his military and political experience. The loss of their titles and their weak or non-existent links outside the Spanish Netherlands meant that they were hard pressed to find allies and forces to recruit. However, the Malcontents were welcomed by William V of Cleves, who was a neighbour in the Spanish Netherlands, even though the Duke preferred to remain neutral in his potential support for the exiled lords. Through the Duke and his wife Marguerite, the Count of Egmont and his allies began to make contact with the French crown in the spring of 1567, despite their reservations and reticence. They sought to make contact with other princes of empires and even the King of Denmark, Frederick II. Despite reservations, they finally made contact with René de Chalon's cousin, William of Nassau-Dillenbourg, who and his brothers were convinced Lutherans and princes of empire. William did not immediately commit himself to supporting the Malcontents, but his brothers Louis and Adolphe joined Lamoral d'Egmont in offering their services.
During 1567, order and peace seemed to reign in the Sixteen Provinces. But anger at the Duke of Alba's brutal policies strengthened the Malcontents' camp, especially as arrests of nobles deemed too close to the Calvinists multiplied during the period. The weakness of the Malcontents seemed to ensure that the governor had no real threat. However, his policies and the arrest of the Earl of Hornes also helped to reinforce divisions and antagonisms among the nobles who remained loyal to the crown. There was a particularly heated dispute between the Governor and the Prince of Orange, René de Chalon, with Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo beginning to distrust the latter, while René disapproved of the way the Governor was managing the Sixteen Provinces, less and less as a territory in its own right and more as a Spanish province. These disagreements erupted with the Quarrel of Ghent in May 1567, when the governor accused René de Chalon of being in contact with Prince Charles and of seeking sedition. This conflict led to a rift between the two men, culminating in René de Chalon's departure to his lands in Orange. René initially refused, as his disagreements with the Duke of Alba had not marred his loyalty to the Habsburgs, despite his criticism of the policy developed for the Sixteen Provinces. The situation changed in autumn 1567 when he heard of Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo's intention to send his son to Spain. For the Prince of Orange, the intention was clear: his son would be used as a hostage to dissuade him from joining the Malcontents. In November 1567, René made contact with Lamoral d'Egmont and eventually joined the Malcontent party in the winter of 1567-1568. His rallying strengthened the Malcontent party and enabled the exiled nobles to make contact with Nicolas II of Lorraine and to strengthen exchanges with the French crown, especially as Charles of Austria joined the kingdom of France during this period. These exchanges culminated in the meeting and Treaty of Saint-Dizier in March 1568, when the French crown pledged its support to the Malcontents and allowed Charles of Austria to join the movement.
These events strengthened the Malcontent party and enabled them to recruit various armed forces, but differences divided the main leaders, particularly on religious issues and military strategy or objectives, with the Malcontent nobles seeking first and foremost to defend the interests of the Sixteen Provinces when Charles of Austria now wished to resume his position as heir and denounce his father. The disagreements were all the stronger because the difficult character of the exiled prince made compromise difficult. In the spring of 1568, however, many of the differences were ironed out and a strategy was put in place with two armies, one led by Charles of Austria and René de Chalon to the south, while the Count of Egmont led another to the north. The Malcontents and the deposed prince also established links with Duke William V of Cleves and Duke Nicholas II of Lorraine, although the latter remained neutral in the quarrels between the Malcontents and the Duke of Alba.
In May 1568, Charles of Austria and René de Chalon crossed the Meuse after obtaining the support of Maastricht. Accompanied by an army of twelve thousand men, they advanced on Brussels with the intention of taking it and forcing the Duke of Alba to give in to their demands. In mid-May 1568, Lamoral d'Egmont and Joost de Soete entered Holland with an army of seven thousand men. The Count succeeded in rallying certain territories and defeated a loyalist army near Geten (2). He sought the support of Groningen, but its representatives refused, forcing him to lay siege to the city.
Faced with the Malcontent attack, Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo raised an army and went to meet the forces of René de Chalon and Charles of Austria. The approach of the Duke of Alba's army led the Prince of Orange to want to avoid him, but Charles of Austria was determined to confront the Duke in the hope of winning him over and, if not, consolidating his position with a prestigious victory. The two armies met east of Tienen at the end of May 1568. The meeting between the deposed prince and the governor failed and led to a confrontation between the two armies. Despite the military skills and advice of the Prince of Orange, Charles of Austria and his forces were crushed by the army of Ferdinand d'Alvare de Toledo and forced to flee, half of his army destroyed in the confrontation. After this success, Ferdinand Alvare de Toledo pursued the remnants of the deposed prince's forces as far as Maastricht, but had to give up his attempt to take the city as the threat from the Count of Egmont's forces grew stronger with the capture of Groningen at the beginning of June 1568 and threatened Zwolle and Utrecht. Moving north, the Duke sought to intercept the second opposing army. Lamoral d'Egmont retreated to Emmen, which he occupied in June 1568. His army narrowly escaped Ferdinand Alvare of Toledo as it crossed the Ems north of Haren towards the end of June 1568. Despite his failure to neutralise the Count of Egmont's army, the Duke of Alba set about regaining control of the region during July 1568. Returning to Brussels at the beginning of August 1568, he had the Count of Hornes executed and further strengthened repression and military governance of the Sixteen Provinces. Shortly afterwards, he laid siege to Maastricht in September 1568, the city having been reinforced by forces sent by Lamoral d'Egmont to defend the city and secure the loyalist army.
In the autumn of 1568, the rest of Count d'Egmont's forces led a new campaign with the help of René de Chalon and Charles of Austria. Crossing the Meuse near Ruremonde in early October 1568, the Malcontents advanced on Antwerp with the intention of making it a strategic location for their forces and gaining access to the North Sea. As they reached Meerhout shortly before mid-October, the deposed prince and his allies learned of the fall of Maastricht and the Duke of Alba's advance to intercept their forces. Seeking to avoid a confrontation with the governor, the forces of the Malcontents moved up towards the territories of Gelderland. They crossed the Ems at Venlo, but were attacked by the Duke of Alba there at the end of October 1568. Clashes raged for several hours, during which the Malcontent forces contained the Spanish assaults to allow part of the army to withdraw. The Duke of Alba finally broke through the opposing defences and forced his opponents into a rout, which he exploited with his cavalry. The rearguard of the forces of Charles of Austria and his allies were massacred by the Spaniards, while the rest of the army had difficulty escaping the pursuit of the horsemen of Ferdinand Alvaro of Toledo.
The success of Venlo enabled the Duke of Alba to consolidate his authority over the Spanish Netherlands and neutralise the threat of the Malcontents, even though he stepped up the surveillance of the borders of the Sixteen Provinces and increased the repression of Calvinists and those close to the Malcontents, forcing certain sections of the population to flee to the lands of the Empire. For their part, Charles of Austria and his allies reorganised themselves in the Principality of Orange, but major divisions emerged between the main leaders, particularly over objectives, with some thinking of breaking away from the Spanish crown. Although the support of the French crown enabled the Malcontents to reorganise their forces, they were nevertheless fairly isolated, as the princes of empire were uncertain or wary of supporting them when they had the former heir to the Spanish crown in their ranks. The announcement of the death of Charles IX of France in the autumn of 1569 worried the Malcontents, who feared that the new sovereign would give up supporting them, leading Charles of Austria to seek a meeting with Charles X to negotiate with him.
During the late 1560s, the Kingdom of Portugal continued to benefit from the regency of Cardinal Henry of Evora on behalf of his grand-nephew, Alexander I. The latter continued his political and military training while being imbued with a deep religious feeling. The regency ended in 1568 when the young sovereign came of age. His character was religious, austere and chaste, but at the same time violent, fiery and even despotic. Alexander I was passionate about all bodily exercises and, at the beginning of his reign, left bits of power to his grandmother Catherine of Castile. The young sovereign surrounded himself with courtiers who encouraged his bellicose character, leading him to plan a campaign against Morocco to spread the Christian faith and put an end to the threat posed by the Saadian dynasty. For his plans, he demanded funds from the Church and began to levy additional taxes on the population. Within the court, rivalries and struggles for influence developed between his grandmother and her opponents, who were determined to play a central role with the young king.
The Kingdom of Portugal continued to develop its influence and relations in the Indian Ocean and Asia, in particular strengthening its influence on the Indian coast and in South-East Asia. They developed their relations with local kingdoms from Ethiopia to Japan. They continued to develop their colony in Brazil, in particular to avoid French interference. Relations with the Kingdom of Morocco and the Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, remained more tense and conflictual. The Portuguese sought to protect their enclaves from the Moroccans, particularly from 1568 with the start of the personal reign of Alexander I, although attacks on the remaining enclaves were reduced by the latent conflict between Morocco and Spain. On the other hand, clashes and conflicts with the Ottomans intensified during this period in the Red Sea, with the Ottoman fleet carrying out another major raid against the Portuguese possessions in Yemen in 1567, where they managed to take Aden, although the fort of Kamaran remained in Portuguese hands, the latter taking advantage of this to carry out piratical actions against the Ottomans in the region and hinder their expansion.
On the diplomatic front, although the Kingdom of Portugal's initial relations with the Kingdom of Spain remained cordial, a certain disagreement began to emerge between Alexander I and Philip II due to their divergent interests in Morocco. While Philip II was prepared to ally himself with the King of Portugal to counter the Saadian dynasty, Alexander I took a dim view of what he perceived as the Spanish sovereign's interference in what he increasingly saw as his own backyard, even though the idea of allying himself with his neighbour and relative as part of what he saw as a new crusade was a strong one. The young sovereign set about forging other links, in particular with the kingdom of England, and strengthened his relations with the papacy, even though Benedict XIII's conciliatory policy was viewed with some incomprehension at the Portuguese court. Relations with the French crown were fairly neutral, but the growing number of expeditions to the coasts of Africa and the Indian Ocean contributed to the emergence of strong tensions between the two kingdoms.
(1) Morisco district of Granada.
(2) Former name of Gieten.