1565-1569: Upheaval in Italy
The end of the 1560s was a special period for the Italian and Swiss territories, marked in particular by the return of local conflicts linked to rivalries between certain cities and territorial or dynastic claims.
The years 1565-1568 saw Gregory XIV seek to put his stamp on the Catholic Church. The Pope strengthened the Roman Inquisition to combat the so-called reformed churches in Italy and beyond. He supported Louis III's Kingdom of Hungary by providing financial aid to combat the Ottoman Empire. The Sovereign Pontiff supported Philip II against Saadian Morocco and lent his support to Francesco II Sforza in his claims to Valtellina, seeing this as an opportunity to weaken the Protestant position in the Swiss cantons. Influenced by the cardinals Alexander Farnese and Ippolito de' Medici, the Pope remained neutral in the conflict between the Duchy of Florence and the Republic of Siena. Gregory XIV continued the architectural projects of his predecessor, as much out of artistic interest as out of a desire to strengthen the influence and prestige of the Catholic Church and embody its triumph over the Protestant movements. Among the cardinals he created were his nephew Luigi Pisani in June 1565 and his compatriot Federico Cornaro in October 1567.
However, the pontiff died in April 1568. In the month following his death, the conclave held to designate his successor saw opposition from various factions, notably that led by Alexander Farnese, that of Luigi Cornaro, who represented the late pope's supporters, and that led by Ippolito de' Medici, who was determined to acquire the position of supreme pontiff. In addition to these internal rivalries, there were also external rivalries between cardinals with French preferences and those with Spanish preferences. Among the favourites were Ippolito de' Medici, Ugo Boncompagni and Giovanni Gerolamo Morone. Thanks to the support of Alexander Farnese and his allies and the Spanish faction, Ippolito de Medici was elected in May 1568 and enthroned as Leo, becoming Leo XI. However, the new pope died at the beginning of June 1568, a few weeks after his election. This precipitated a new conclave, where the choice fell on the dean of the college of cardinals, Giovanni Gerolamo Morone, after around a month of debate in which the various factions struggled to reach agreement and put forward their champion. The new pontiff chose the name Benedict in reference to his role as protector of the Benedictine order, initially becoming Benedict XIV before retracting to Benedict XIII, the previous Benedict XIII being considered an antipope (1).
The new Pope set out to strengthen his relations with the various states of Christendom, seeking in particular to mobilise the Christian powers against the Ottoman Empire, whose success on Rhodes once again increased their threat in the Mediterranean. He continued his predecessor's policy of supporting Louis III of Hungary, who was now facing Sultan Selim II. Benedict XIII particularly developed his links with Emperor Maximilian II in order to be able to develop a policy of reconciliation and reintegration of the Lutherans into the fold of the Church. He maintained the Roman Inquisition, but restricted the extension of their influence and actions beyond the Papal States and the Italian territories where they had established themselves. The Pope undertook to pursue reforms within the Church, with the aim of reconciling the different components of Christianity. He showcased Baroque architecture to make Rome shine and strengthen the appeal of the Catholic Church. His religious policies, particularly that of reconciliation and the reintegration of Lutherans into the Catholic faith, were received with mixed feelings within the Roman Curia and rekindled rumours of his Lutheran sympathies, which had been denied under the pontificate of Gregory XIV. However, the pontifical policy enabled Rome to preserve its lustre and prestige, winning the admiration of foreign representatives and visitors.
On the diplomatic front, Benedict XIII developed important relations with Emperor Maximilian II, who shared his desire to reintegrate the Lutherans into the Catholic Church. He maintained important relations with Philip II of Spain, supporting the latter against the Kingdom of Morocco. He maintained important relations with the Kingdom of France. He also intervened in the conflict between Siena and Florence, acting as arbitrator in favour of Siena to counter the influence of the Medici and Farnese families. He developed relations with Mary I of England, some of whose religious policies he supported, even though he was reluctant to grant her the right to appoint English bishops, following the example of the Concordat of Carpentras for the Kingdom of France. Finally, he supported John II of Norway, whom he saw as a valuable ally in the restoration of the Catholic faith in the northern kingdoms.
The years 1565-1569 were a special time for the Duchy of Milan. While its duke, Francesco II, pursued a policy of patronage designed to make his capital one of the most prestigious on the Italian peninsula, surrounding himself with the most brilliant artists and cultured men. The duchy regained some of its former prosperity thanks to trade, even if it had to bear the brunt of the inflation raging throughout Christendom. On the religious front, Francesco II fought resolutely against Protestant ideas, supporting the strengthening of the Roman Inquisition led by Pope Clement VIII, with whom he strengthened his relations, particularly in his plan to recover Valtellina from the Alliance of the Three Leagues.
The Duke also sought to isolate the Grisons Leagues. He secured the neutrality of his other neighbours, notably Charles IX of France and Emperor Maximilian II, in order to be able to carry out his plans. He also obtained the support of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the Emperor's brother, who saw it as an opportunity to extend the territory of the Lower Engadine controlled by the Grisons. The internal divisions within the Swiss Confederation provided him with an opportunity to implement his plan.
These diplomatic negotiations enabled Francesco II to send an ultimatum to the Alliance of the Three Leagues in the spring of 1566, demanding that they cede the region to him. When the Grey Leagues refused, the Duke declared war on them in the summer of 1566 and prepared his forces, justifying his campaign in the name of the Catholic faith. Recruiting Swiss condottieres and mercenaries from Catholic cantons, the Duke of Milan attacked the Como and Valtellina region in July 1566. His forces captured Como at the end of August 1566 and reached Sondrio at the beginning of September 1566. The Milanese moved up towards Chiavenna and met a Grison army north of Lake Mezzola on 13th August 1566. The confrontation was brutal, with the Grisons using the terrain to counter the Milanese attacks. Thanks to the condottieres they had recruited, the Milanese eventually dispersed the Grisons and took Chiavenna on 16th September 1566. The Milanese then turned their attention to Bormio, which they occupied in October 1566. The news that a Grisons army was approaching Chiavenna led the Milanese to return to the latter in an attempt to stop their adversaries. At the beginning of September 1566, the two armies clashed in Val Bregaglia. Unlike the confrontation at Lake Mezzola, the Milanese did not have the numerical advantage and were exhausted by their campaign. Their situation was complicated by the growing problem of paying the mercenaries who made up their forces. All these factors contributed to the Grisons' success in the battle of 8th September 1566, causing part of the Milanese forces to rout. Following this success, the Graubünden regained control of most of Valtellina in the autumn of 1566.
Despite the defeat in Val Bregaglia, Francesco II did not concede defeat and sought to involve Ferdinand of Tyrol in the conflict in order to divide the Graubünden forces, convinced that the confessional divisions between the Swiss cantons would prevent them from supporting the Three League Alliance. In parallel with the new negotiations with the Habsburgs, the Duke of Milan carried out various skirmishes against the Graubünden to weaken their position in the region, but also to prevent them from moving south to threaten him. However, the exchanges with Ferdinand of Tyrol were long and uncertain, with the Count of Tyrol more reluctant to intervene openly in the conflict. He also learned of the formation of the League of Glarus in November 1567 by the Protestant cantons of the eastern part of the Swiss Confederation. Despite these setbacks, Francesco II tried to save the situation and, with difficulty, raised a new army at the beginning of 1567, which he sent to regain control of Valtellina in February 1567. The Milanese came up against the Graubünden army and their allies south of Morbigno in mid-February 1567. The ensuing battle was deadly, with the Milanese failing to break the Graubunden lines in their assaults and with the support of their cannons before a flanking attack failed to bypass the opposing army, causing panic among the Milanese.
Following the further defeat of his forces and the risk of an invasion of his duchy by the Grisons and their allies, Francesco II was urged by his entourage to negotiate a truce with the Alliance of the Three Leagues. The truce was signed between the duchy and the Grison leagues in March 1567, and the status quo was maintained. After the end of the Valtellina War, Francesco II concentrated on reorganising his duchy's finances and resuming his policy of patronage. Despite his failure to retake Valtellina, he continued to keep a close eye on the situation in the Swiss cantons and the Alliance of the Three Leagues, particularly the divisions and tensions that shook the Swiss cantons following the creation of the League of Glarus.
However, Milanese incursions into Valtellina brought the plague to the duchy, while a major epidemic affected the Swiss cantons and, from 1566-1567, the Three League Alliance. Francesco II endeavoured to limit the impact of the epidemic, which struck Como and Brescia particularly hard in 1568-1569.
On the diplomatic front, Francesco II developed important relations with the Habsburgs, particularly Ferdinand of Tyrol, although these did not lead to an alliance. His relations with the Swiss cantons were mixed, with good relations with several of the Catholic cantons and strained relations with the Protestant cantons, particularly due to their support for the Alliance of the Three Leagues. It had a special relationship with the papacy, although the religious policy of Benedict XIII caused some friction between the duchy and the Papal States. Relations with the Republic of Genoa were complex, especially as the events that affected the maritime republic from 1566 onwards rekindled Milan's temptation to reassert its influence over the latter. Francesco II maintained complicated ties with the kingdom of France, particularly as a result of the kingdom's growing influence over the Genoese republic from 1567 onwards. At the end of 1569, the Duke learnt of the death of Charles IX, prompting a mixed reaction from him due to the uncertainties surrounding the intentions of the new French king, Charles X.
The end of the 1560s was a complicated time for the Republic of Genoa. Having replaced his father as admiral and unofficial ruler of Genoa, Giovannia Andrea sought to maintain his position and win over the Albergo factions. He set about restoring the Genoese fleet and strengthening diplomatic ties with Philip II of Spain and trade in the Mediterranean and its various neighbours. Although his relations with the Duchy of Milan were neutral, they remained excellent compared to the uncertain and tense relations with the Kingdom of France and even the Duchy of Savoy, as Louis II was close to the French crown. Relations with Alessandro II de' Medici, on the other hand, were more complex, as the Duke of Florence was very ambitious and wanted to strengthen his dukedom.
The death of Giannettino in 1563 contributed to the strengthening of the Albergi's intrigues and the hostility of some of them towards the Doria, with a strong desire to regain the power lost since the end of the war in the League of Perugia. The Fieschis and the Fregosos joined forces to plot the overthrow of the Doria and the restoration of the doge-for-life system, seeking in particular to influence the election of the biennial doges. Faced with the Albergi's intrigues, Giovanni Andrea sought to counter them in various ways, playing off rivalries with rival families and developing his influence in the City Council. Although he lacked his father's arrogance and Caesarian approach, Giovanni Andrea sought to preserve his family's influence over the Genoese republic. These intrigues culminated in September 1565 in the election of Ottavio Gentile Oderico by the nuovi and vecchi of the City Council, who were partly influenced by Giovanni. Giovanni had supported this candidate, who had no political experience, on the grounds that he was weak and malleable, thus countering his rivals.
Following this election and Giovanni Doria's interference in the city's affairs, some of the Albergo family joined forces to plot against the Doria family and re-establish the previous system. Among the conspirators were Ottobuono Fieschi and Giovanni Luigi Fieschi, the latter distancing himself from his father in his dealings with the Doria. However, the conspirators had difficulty finding outside allies who would support them in overthrowing the Doria and putting an end to the growing Spanish influence in the city. The Fieschis involved in the plot set about contacting the French crown to obtain its support (2) and to be able to implement the plot. Exchanges developed from autumn 1565 onwards, before the conspirators received the support of Charles IX, Louis II of Savoy and Alberico Cybo. On the strength of this support, the conspirators agreed on a plan to seize the Genoese fleet and the city gates, but were divided over the ideal time to carry out their plan: some wanted to act quickly to avoid having their plot exposed, while others wanted to prepare the ground and strike at the most appropriate moment. A compromise was reached with the choice of Easter as the date for the execution of the plot.
On the morning of 14 April 1566, the conspirators led by Giacomo Fieschi and Alberico Cybo set out to seize the Genoese fleet and the gates of Genoa. Faced with the uproar caused by the conspirators' actions, Giovanni barely escaped at sea. The conspirators set out to seize the government with their allies. They managed to seize most of the members of the Council and Ottavio Gentile Oderico. They also captured Giovanni Andrea Doria's wife, Zenobia del Carretto, and the Spanish ambassador in Genoa, not hesitating to kill the latter (3). Having succeeded in seizing Genoa's various nerve centres, the conspirators set up a council to govern the city and reform its political organisation. Ottavio Gentile Oderico remained doge for a time, before having to step down on 17th April 1566. The provisional council that was established sought to re-establish the old system of electing doges. It also took advantage of the situation to confiscate the Doria estates. The new regime set about reforming the city's administration, while preserving many of the advances made under the biennial doges and the Doria. The members of the council also sought the support of their allies to protect Genoa from Giovanni Doria's potential retaliation. The Fieschi family therefore undertook to send a representative to Charles IX to obtain his support and protection. Having learned of Giovanni Doria's presence in Rapallo at the beginning of May 1566, the Council sought to send forces to retake the city and capture the last representative of the Doria family. Despite difficulties in gathering a force due to the hostility of the communes and the need to consolidate control over Genoa, the Council sent a small troop to Rapallo in May 1566. They captured Rapallo after a violent confrontation, but failed to capture Giovanni Doria, who had escaped a short time earlier.
However, their policy was opposed by the communes, who rejected the coup and feared that the Albergo family would reduce their position in the political life of the city. The anger of the communes was gradually fuelled by supporters of the Doria family who had escaped capture and who hoped to pave the way for Giovanni Doria's return. These oppositions were compounded by the development of rivalries among the Albergo, as the great Genoese families sought to regain power and corner it for themselves. These rivalries were exacerbated by divisions over the alliances to be forged to preserve the new regime, even though the assassination of the Spanish ambassador helped to impose the idea of a rapprochement with the kingdom of France. Despite awareness of the risk of Giovanni Doria's return with his allies, the council was divided into factions represented mainly by the various Albergo, but also a small group supporting Alberico Cybo. The latter was seeking to develop a leading position within the council and wanted the support of the Genoese to take back the Marquisate of Massa and the Lordship of Carrara from his brother Giulio as a reward for his support. The refusal or lack of interest shown by the main members of the council led Alberico to plot to obtain a position of choice in Genoa so that he could carry out his plans. These various rivalries were particularly strong with regard to the Fieschi family, who were able to take advantage of their role as leaders of the conspiracy to take the leading role in the council and work to regain the position of doge. However, the Genoese family was also divided by the rivalry between Giovanni Fieschi and his brother Ottobuono, with both men claiming the leading position on the council due to their role in the conspiracy. Although Giovanni Fieschi was elected doge at the beginning of May 1566, he was overthrown by his opponents in the autumn of 1566 and replaced by Alberico Cybo-Malaspina.
The new doge sought to consolidate his position within the city and abroad, by attempting to renew ties with Philip II of Spain. He acceded to the sovereign's request to punish the murderers of his ambassador, having some of those responsible sentenced in November 1566. However, his action helped to provoke hostility from the Fieschi family and some of the other Albergi, while the communes continued to take a dim view of the return of the doge-for-life system at a time when their political weight had been weakened. The new doge sought to prepare his plan to regain control of the seigniory of Carrara and the marquisate of Massa. However, his plan was denounced by the other Albergi, who took a dim view of the misappropriation of public funds for a project that did not concern them. They forced Alberico to resign in January 1567. He was replaced by Cesare Fregoso (4). The new doge set about developing relations with the kingdom of France and the duchy of Savoy to protect the republic from the risks posed by the duchy of Milan or an attempt by Giovanni Doria to regain control of the city. The new doge sought to strengthen Corsica's defences, unwilling to see the deposed admiral attempt to use the island to regain control of the city. He managed to consolidate his position during 1567, even though relations with the Kingdom of Spain were more complicated, particularly due to the rehabilitation of those executed under his predecessor and the survival of Giovanni Doria.
Despite the internal unrest and the vagaries of diplomacy, the Republic of Genoa managed to maintain its trade with its various neighbours, even consolidating its trade with the Kingdom of France. The strengthening of its ties with the kingdom of France led it to gradually fall under the influence of the French crown.
In the late 1560s, the Duchy of Florence was again involved in various events and troubles that affected the region. During this period, Alessandro II undertook to develop Florence to rival Rome and Milan, supporting a major policy of patronage by supporting painters, sculptors and architects, including Agnolo Bronzino and Bartolomeo Ammannati. In particular, he encouraged the development of Baroque art from Rome. In governing his territories, Alessandro continued to rely on his father-in-law Cosme, but increasingly distanced himself from the latter, eager to prove himself and less and less appreciative of Cosme's administrative talents, feeling that he was in Cosme's shadow. His marriage to Madeleine Sforza gave birth to a second daughter, Cecilia, in autumn 1566. A son, Lorenzo, was born in the summer of 1567 but died shortly afterwards.
During this period, Alessandro II also wanted to strengthen his territory and legitimacy by neutralising Florence's rival, Siena. The Duke was determined to defeat the rival city and seize part of its territories. He was all the more determined to act because he wanted to succeed where his father-in-law and mother had failed a decade earlier, and because he took a dim view of the Strozzi presence in Siena, recalling the existence of notable figures defending the republican regime against which the Medici had had problems. He decided to rely on his uncles Ottavio and Rannucio, the former of whom had important claims on Siena. He met them in Cortona in the spring of 1566 and undertook to defend their claims in exchange for some of Siena's territories. The meeting was somewhat tense due to the Farneses' own interests, but an agreement was reached between the Duke of Florence and his uncles. In the summer of 1566, Alessandro II received a representative from Siena asking for the truce between their two cities to be renewed. Duke Medici refused to extend the peace. In preparation for his campaign against the Sienese, the Duke undertook to forge diplomatic links with several of his neighbours and the King of Spain in order to gain support or guarantee their neutrality, particularly in the case of the Papacy through the intermediary of his uncles, Cardinals Farnese and Ippolito de' Medici. In September 1566, he received Giovanni Doria, who asked for his help in recapturing Genoa. The Duke was unable to accede to his guest's request, as he was concentrating on preparing his campaign against Siena. He did, however, allow Giovanni Doria to reach the Kingdom of Naples.
Having assembled an army in the winter of 1566-1567, he attacked Siena in February 1567, putting his father-in-law in charge of the city. Determined to isolate the Sienese Republic from any outside support, he attacked Monterrigioni while his two uncles were passing through Casole d'Elsa. The Duke of Florence laid siege to the fortified city for a fortnight before surrendering. He joined his uncles, who had begun the siege of Siena at the beginning of March 1567. While his forces and those of his uncle Ottavio Farnese continued the siege, those of Rannuccio Farnese undertook a campaign in the south-west to seize the territories close to the coast and isolate Siena from any maritime support. Rannuccio Farnese captured Montieri at the beginning of April 1567 before laying siege to the fortress of Massa (5) at the beginning of April 1567, but had to face a Sienese army led by Philip Strozzi and Astore Baglioni at the end of April 1567. Rannuccio was killed in the confrontation, while his army was routed by the Sienese.
Alessandro II and his uncle Ottavio Farnese laid siege to Siena during the spring and summer of 1567. They learned of the defeat and death of Rannuccio Farnese at the beginning of May and soon afterwards suffered raids from the forces of Philip Strozzi and Astore Baglioni. By early summer, the Florentine forces were exhausted and weakened, and the question of payment for the mercenaries arose. Unable to take the city, Alessandro II was forced to lift the siege in June 1567 and retreat to Monterrigioni. Reaching Florence at the beginning of July, he set about reorganising his forces and gathering new ones, but had to ask his father-in-law to help him against the Sienese. At the end of the summer of 1567, on hearing the news of the siege of Monterrigioni by the Sienese, Alessandro II instructed his father-in-law to rescue the garrison. The latter reached Monterrigioni in September 1567, forcing the Sienese to lift the siege. Following this success, Cosimo reinforced the city's garrison and led raids into Sienese territory during the autumn of 1567, before returning to Florence to spend the winter of 1567-1568. At the beginning of 1568, Alessandro II learned of the Sienese attack on Volterra and in March 1568 led a new army in an attempt to bring his adversaries to heel. Accompanied by his uncle Ottavio Farnese, the Duke confronted the Sienese near San Gimignano at the end of March 1568. The battle was violent and saw Alessandro II forced to retreat to Florence. As the Volterra region was hit by the Sienese raids, the Duke of Florence was forced to rely on his father-in-law to resolve the situation. Cosimo de' Medici defeated the Sienese south of Certaldo in mid-April 1568.
At the end of spring 1568, the Florentines were forced to submit to the arbitration of the new Pope, Benedict XIII. He imposed a return to the status quo for both cities in July 1568. Alessandro II resented the imposition of peace and the papal interference. This was compounded by his growing jealousy of his father-in-law Cosimo, whose administrative and military talents made him popular with the Florentine population and undermined Alessandro II's position. A growing rivalry developed between the two men, with Alessandro II now seeking to emancipate himself from his father-in-law and even thinking of getting rid of him, fearing that the Florentines would support Cosimo to his detriment. Alessandro II tried to have Cosme poisoned in the spring of 1569, but failed. Worried that he might be overthrown, he instructed trusted men to assassinate Cosme in May 1569. The attack succeeded, but rumours of Alessandro's involvement spread as Cosimo's brutal death was keenly felt by the Florentine population. Alessandro II's relations with his mother deteriorated as the Pope intervened in the affair in the autumn of 1569, denouncing Cosimo's assassination and demanding that Alessandro II show repentance.
The territory of Siena went through a rather complicated period at the end of the 1560s. Although Peter Strozzi and the governing council continued to provide fairly stable governance for the city, allowing it to prosper economically and artistically, the Sienese found themselves confronted with the ambitions of the Duke of Florence, Alessandro II de' Medici. Having learned of the negotiations between the Medici and the Farnese, Peter Strozzi and the city council sent a representative to negotiate an extension of the truce in the summer of 1566, but were rebuffed by Alessandro II. This led Peter Strozzi and the city council to prepare for the possibility of conflict, seeking allies to counter Alessandro II, in particular from the French crown, and seeking papal arbitration. They received no specific response from Gregory XIV, but were promised potential support from the French, who were backing the new Doge of Genoa. Faced with the imminent risk of conflict, Peter Strozzi sought to recruit an army and strengthen the defences of the Sienese territory. He obtained the services of Astore Baglioni to lead part of the forces charged with defending the Sienese republic.
In February 1567, Siena was attacked by Alessandro II de' Medici and his uncles Ottavio and Rannucio Farnese. On hearing of the fall of Casole d'Elsa and the siege of Monterrigioni, Peter Strozzi and the council raised a militia of almost ten thousand men to defend the city. Siena was besieged by the Farnese forces from mid-March 1567, before Alessandro II joined them. Peter Strozzi organised the city's defences against the Florentines and entrusted his son Philip and Astore Baglioni with the task of preventing the Florentines from moving inland and isolating Siena. While Peter Strozzi effectively defended Siena against Alessandro II, his son and Astore Baglioni defeated Rannuccio Farnese at the Battle of Massa before raiding the Florentines to disrupt their supply lines and force them to lift the siege of Siena in June 1567. Following this success, the Sienese sought to retake the territories that the Florentines had taken from them. Philip Strozzi and Astore Baglioni attacked Casole d'Elsa at the beginning of July 1567. They recaptured the town before attempting to retake Monterrigioni in August 1567. The siege was difficult and the Sienese almost took it, but in September 1567 they faced a new Sienese army led by Cosimo de' Medici, forcing them to lift the siege and withdraw to Siena. The Republic of Siena was subjected to raids by Cosimo de' Medici during the autumn of 1567, particularly in the Castelnuovo Berardenga region. However, the Sienese took advantage of the winter of 1567-1568 to organise themselves and prepare their defences. Peter Strozzi and the council decided to attack Volterra to force the Florentines on the defensive. They sent an army led by Astore Baglioni and Peter Strozzi in February 1568. The Sienese reached Volterra shortly afterwards and took it after a few days. The Sienese raided the region, taking San Gimignano in particular. However, at the end of March 1568, they came up against the nearby army of Alessandro II and Ottavio de' Medici. The battle was brutal, but Astore Baglioni eventually forced the Florentines to retreat to Florence. The Sienese continued their raids in the region, but were defeated by Cosimo de' Medici in mid-April 1568 near Certaldo, forcing them to retreat to Volterra. Astore Baglioni was seriously wounded in the confrontation and died of his injuries a few days later.
In the summer of 1568, Siena obtained a return to peace thanks to the intervention of Pope Benedict XIII. This allowed the council and Peter Strozzi to concentrate on governing the city and strengthening its ties with the outside world, in particular with the new pontiff and the Republic of Genoa.
In the late 1560s, the Republic of Venice pursued its policy of renewing trade relations with the Ottoman Empire, taking advantage of the new sultan to try and obtain concessions from him. The Serenissima also continued to develop investments in Domini di Terraferma (6), even though the two Doges of the period were not very involved in this policy.
On the diplomatic front, the Serenissima sought to improve its relations with the Ottoman Empire by taking advantage of the advent of the new sultan, Selim II. It also sought to maintain good diplomatic and commercial relations with its neighbours, mainly the Papacy and the Habsburgs. It kept a close eye on the unrest that shook the Republic of Genoa and on Selim II's moves against the latter in the Aegean between 1568 and 1569.
The Swiss cantons faced a complicated and tense situation during the years 1565-1569. The Catholic and Protestant cantons sought to find a compromise that would ensure the stability of the confederation, although the Catholic Church sought to strengthen its presence among the Swiss cantons, while the Protestant cantons sought to preserve their gains. The cantons sought to draw inspiration from the Treaty of Augsburg and the principle of respect for each canton's own religious practices at federal diets. These tensions were compounded by the plague epidemic that had been affecting the region since 1563, and which struck various cantons between 1565 and 1568, devastating several of them.
The divisions and the plague made it difficult to establish a policy of compromise, especially as the tensions between the Alliance of the Three Leagues and the Duchy of Milan further complicated the situation. The Protestant cantons were prepared to support their neighbours and allies in Graubünden, while certain Catholic cantons such as Lucerne and Fribourg were prepared to remain neutral, or even to support Duke Francesco II. These tensions prevented the Swiss cantons from reaching a compromise and led to the Valtellina War between the Alliance of the Three Leagues and Milan in 1566. The Protestant cantons in the east were determined to support the Three League Alliance and united in the League of Glarus in autumn 1566. Despite the constraints resulting from the plague epidemic, the alliance sent men to support the Graubünden against the Milanese, playing a crucial role in the victory at Bitto in February 1567, forcing Francesco II to sign a truce with the Three League Alliance and maintain the status quo in March 1567.
However, this success contributed to heightening tensions between the Catholic and Protestant cantons, with the Catholic cantons fearing that the Protestant cantons would try to carry out the policy pursued under Ulrich Zwingli in the 1530s. These tensions were not helped by the speeches made by certain religious representatives of the Catholic clergy, who warned the Catholic cantons of the risk of a repeat of the Germanic situation, or even of an attack by the Protestant cantons to force the Catholic cantons to give in to their demands. The risk of conflict and religious tensions brought the Federal Diet to an impasse, with unanimity on decisions concerning the status of confessional practice being very difficult to achieve, despite the desire of cantons of both denominations to achieve a situation similar to the Alliance of the Three Leagues, or similar to the Germanic regions with the Treaty of Augsburg. Bern and Fribourg played a significant role in the negotiations at the Federal Diet, as the two cantons had important relations despite their denominational differences. Conversely, the members of the League of Glarus were reluctant to dissolve their alliance, while several of the members of the former Christian Union demanded that they do so. These controversies were compounded by those of the local clergy, with some representatives of the Catholic Church defending local specificities in contrast to the main representatives, such as the Prince-Bishop of Sion. The members of the Diet resigned themselves to a tense status quo, while several Catholic cantons preferred to join forces to avoid the risk of a Protestant backlash.
The years 1568-1569 saw the situation ease somewhat as the Swiss cantons learned of the new papal policy. The Papacy's conciliatory approach towards Protestants enabled some of the cantons to reach agreement and work to maintain peace. Although the League of Glarus and the Christian Union did not disarm each other, they agreed to set up a system similar to that in the lands of the Empire. In the spring of 1569, a treaty was signed in Sion, committing the various cantons to respecting each other's religious practices while maintaining their own. However, the treaty left open the question of the Catholic Church's relationship with the Zwinglians, Lutherans and Calvinists, as the relations between these different reformed churches had not been clarified and the radicalism of Calvinism and the defensive stance of Lutheranism complicated any approach to conciliation.
Diplomatically, the Swiss cantons were divided by their religious differences. Relations with the princes of the empire were good, and imperial policy led to a good relationship with Emperor Maximilian II, although the Habsburg shenanigans in the conflict between Milan and the Alliance of the Three Leagues kept the cantons on their toes. Relations with the French crown were complex, particularly as a result of Charles IX's rapprochement with Louis II of Savoy. Relations with the Duchy of Savoy were complex and tense, as Savoyard claims on the Republic of Geneva continued to exist. The Catholic cantons maintained important relations with the papacy, even if the defence of local specificities constituted a distance from the Holy See. The election of Benedict XIII and the start of a conciliatory policy to try and bring Protestants back into the fold of the Catholic Church eased some of the tensions within the Swiss cantons. Relations with the Alliance of the Three Leagues were complex, with the Protestant cantons strengthening their relations with the cantons of Graubünden. Relations with the Republic of Geneva were complex: the canton of Bern remained an important ally of the city, but controversies within the confederation led it to focus on resolving tensions between the Catholic and Protestant cantons.
The years 1565-1569 were rather complex for the Alliance of the Three Leagues. In spring 1566, they had to face up to the claims of Francesco II Sforza. Despite having complicated relations with the Swiss cantons, the Graubünden Leagues refused to give in to the demands of the Duke of Milan. They were attacked by the Duke in Valtellina in the summer of 1566, and one of their forces was defeated north of Lake Mezzola in August 1566. Mobilising their forces, the Graubünden confronted and defeated the Milanese at Val Bregaglia in September 1566, before regaining control of most of Valtellina and carrying out attacks in the Como region in the autumn of 1566. Skirmishes raged between them and the Milanese during this period, but they enjoyed the support of the Swiss Protestant cantons, which united in the League of Glarus. This alliance enabled them to counter the duchy's new attack in February 1567 at the Battle of Bitto and to attack in the Como region at the beginning of March 1567, forcing Francesco II into a truce that restored the status quo.
During the years 1567-1569, the Alliance of the Three Leagues carefully and vigilantly managed the denominational question, seeking to maintain the system that allowed each of its cantons to freely practise the denomination of their choice, while the influence of the Catholic Church grew stronger as a result of the various pontifical policies and tensions were high within the Swiss cantons. This does not prevent the Graubünden Leagues from maintaining good relations with the Protestant cantons. It remained vigilant against the Duchy of Milan and the Habsburgs, whose expansionist intentions in Lower Engandine it mistrusted.
In the late 1560s, the Duchy of Savoy was consolidated under the governance of Louis II of Savoy. He drew inspiration from the French court and the court of Milan to give his duchy a certain prestige. He continued to maintain good relations with the French crown, even though he tried to maintain a certain independence. The Duke maintained some links with the other princes of the empire. However, his relations with the Swiss cantons and the Italian territories were more important. His relations with the Swiss cantons were complicated by Savoyard claims on the Republic of Geneva. He closely watched the tensions within the Swiss confederation, aware that this could give him an opportunity to strengthen his duchy's influence over Geneva and counter Calvinist ideas. His relations with the Duchy of Milan were neutral but cordial, while those with the Republic of Genoa were rather complicated due to the unrest that shook the city from the summer of 1566. Relations between the Duchy of Savoy and the Kingdom of France were, however, strengthened by the rapprochement between the maritime republic and the latter. In dynastic terms, the Duke and his wife gave birth to Charles in autumn 1565, Elisabeth in spring 1567 and Catherine in summer 1568.
(1) Benedict XIII (1394-1423) was Pope of Avignon during the Great Western Schism. Although the Catholic Church has not yet decided whether or not he is an antipope, Giovanni Gerolamo Morone considered him to be one in view of the Reformation.
(2) The Fieschis were among the great Genoese families with the closest ties to the French crown.
(3) Spanish influence and interference were not well perceived by some Genoese, particularly because of the strong ties between the Doria family and the Spanish crowns.
(4) Son of Cesare Fregoso (1500-1561), a Genoese scholar and diplomat who fought alongside Ottaviano Fregoso, Doge of Genoa, in 1513 to reconquer the city, which was ruled by the Adorno family.
(5) This is Massa Marittima.
(6) The land territory of the Republic of Venice.
